The Ancient Egyptian Calendar Part 2 by Kerry Wisner

The Ancient Egyptian Calendar and Festivals Part Two: Celebration of the Festivals

by Kerry Wisner, Jemjra Hm Akhet Hwt-Hrw

This article previously appeared in Cup of Wonder Issue Number Five

Ancient Egypt was a vibrant, rich culture in which the cycles of nature were celebrated with festivals that were at once both passionate and devout in nature. In part one of this article I had explained how the festival calendars of Ancient Egypt were calculated. In part two I would like to describe how these were celebrated by examining the texts surrounding a number of the more important festivals.

The festivals of Ancient Egypt were intended to attune the celebrants with the cycles of nature through the symbology of myth and the sacred act of ritual. In doing so the participants became aware of their own connection with the divine and their place in the universe. This was done by enacting portions of the myths that related to the season. Often times members of the priesthood would represent different Neteru (Egyptian Goddesses and Gods), allowing themselves to become vehicles for these divinities. All of this was done under the careful constraint of designated rituals that had been in use for thousands of years. In celebrating the religious holidays the participants drew closer to the Neteru, and in so doing, the Neteru became more perceptible to the participants.

While performed with great reverence these festivals were also occasions for joyful abandonment and ecstatic revelry. A wonderful quote describing the festivities surrounding the temple of Edfu during the anniversary of the marriage of Hwt_Hrw, later named Hathor by the Greeks, and Heru_Ur, later named Horus the Elder by the Greeks, illustrates this: "[The city] is bestrewn with faience, gleaming with natron, garlanded with flowers and fresh herbs. The prophets and fathers–of–the–god are clad in fine linen, the king’s entourage are arrayed in their regalia. The city’s youth are drunk, it citizens are glad, its young maidens are beautiful to see, rejoicing is round about it, festivity is in all quarters, there is no sleep in it until dawn" (1).

By the end of the Greco–Roman Period there were more than three–hundred annual religious festivals held in Egypt. Some of these could last for weeks at a time. In researching these I have examined the festival calendars from a number of temples including Abydos, Karnak, Elephantine, Kom Ombo, Esna, Edfu and Dendera, as well as the Medinet Habu calendar and the Cairo calendar. Except for the New Year’s festival, the dates of all of the holidays move from year to year as they are governed by the cycles of the moon. Due to considerations of space only a few of the more important festivals are listed here. Each of these are given according to their lunar date. Using the format outlined in part one of this article (2) it is relatively easy to calculate these festivals for our current era.

Perhaps the single most important festival was Wep–Renpet, the "New Year’s Festival," which was, ideally, marked by the annual rising of the star Sirius at sunrise. The new year’s festival was one of the most powerful ceremonies of Ancient Egypt. On this day the revitalizing light of the star Sirius and the Sun were united with the earthly image of the Neteru/Gods of each temple (3). On this one day the statues were taken from their shrines and placed where they could bathe in the light of these sacred manifestations of the feminine and masculine forces of life; Sirius, the stellar Goddess and the Sun, the living image of the God Ra.

The temples of Heru/Horus at Edfu and Hwt–Hrw/Hathor at Dendera document this ceremony. Just before sunrise a procession of priests and priestesses dressed in ritual garb, including sacred masks of many of the Neteru, began deep in the temple. They carried offerings, ceremonial implements and shrines holding gold statues of the Neteru. Slowly climbing the eastern staircase the procession echoed the steady ascent of both Sirius and the Sun. Once on the roof the shrines were opened to greet the morning light (4).

Inscriptions from Dendera take up the narrative. Hwt–Hrw is ". . . the beautiful one who appears in heaven, the truth who regulates the world at the head of the sun barge, the Queen and Mistress of awe, the ruler (of Gods and) Goddesses, Isis the great, the Mother of the Gods." Here Hwt–Hrw’s identity extends to Isis (Aset) and Sopdet— the Ancient Egyptian name for the star Sirius (5).

Additional inscriptions continue: "Radiantly, above Her father’s forehead, the Golden One rises, and Her mysterious form occupies the bow of His boat. Her rays unite with the luminous God on that beautiful day of the birth of the sun disk on the morning of the new year’s feast" (6). The "Golden One" referred to is none other than Hwt–Hrw, the Great Mother of the Egyptian pantheon in Her form of the star Sirius. Here the union of Goddess and God are played out on a cosmic scale. Rejuvenated by the combined light of Sun and star, the statues were returned to their shrines and the procession began its journey down into the temple via the opposite staircase representing the westerly journey of these celestial bodies (7).

Just twenty days after the New Year Festival the ceremony known as the "Inebriation of Hwt–Hrw" occurs. Dr. Barbra Lesko gives a wonderful translation of an ancient ritual text in which the Goddess is called upon during this sacred rite: "Come, O Golden One, who consumes praise because the food of her desire is dancing, who shines on the festival at the time of illumination, who is content with the dancing at night. Come! The procession is in the place of inebriation, that hall of traveling through the marshes. The drunken celebrants drum for you during the cool of the night" (8). This is an intense five day long religious rite.

At first this may almost seem to be a contradiction . . . the idea that a religious holiday would be held in honor of drunkenness. As modern reconstructionists of an ancient philosophy, we have to ask ourselves "why?" What end does this festival serve? In many ancient cultures intoxication was seen as a means by which communication with, and awareness of, spiritual realities could be achieved. Certainly this intoxication could, and often was, achieved through the use of alcohol or narcotics. However, inebriation also was achieved through the use of chanting, fasting, dance and music. In essence these were all seen as a means to create an altered state allowing one to become more open to the spiritual forces around them.

In the Ancient Egyptian religious and magical expression all of these methods were frequently applied. The Goddess Hwt–Hrw’s title "Lady of Drunkenness" clearly reveals this aspect of Her nature. This "sacred drunkenness" or "sober drunkenness" can take on many forms. How often have you found yourself caught up in the rhythm of a song or dance; or been swept up in the ecstasy of love, or the passion of sexuality? These are all states of "intoxication." A similar and yet perhaps more profound intoxicating state of mind occurs when communing with the divine.

In her wonderful book "Hathor Rising" Alison Roberts explains the concept of "sober drunkenness" when considering an ancient inscription written by the son of a priest from Karnak: "Let his hands receive your offerings, for see he has pure hands; Let his mouth be filled with provisions, for see he spoke truth (Maat) in his sobriety; Let him drink from your libations, for see he loves drunkenness." Ms Roberts expounds: "His prayer displays a profound awareness that Maat and Hathor, order and drunkenness, are both needed in the solar circuit. Right action by itself was never the goal of the Egyptian solar cult; nor were excess, delight, wine and fire ever suppressed for the sake of duty–bound moral worth alone. And if it can be said that Maat directs and guides, equally it must never be forgotten that Hathor is the power who moves the desire for life and existence" (9).

Perhaps the Chinese philosopher Lao–Tzu (alive in Asia during the late period of Egypt) also expressed the state of "divine intoxication" well when he wrote: "Those who commune with the universal harmony are as if dead drunk, lying there blissfully, thus roaming within it" (10).

In Egyptian ritual this intoxicating state of mind was a primary goal of the ritualist. The following texts reveal much about the nature of this festival and how it was, and is today, celebrated: "I bring the wine for the Golden One (Hwt–Hrw). That you may be filled with joy, living in intoxication day and night without end. Be happy and carefree, while male and female singers rejoice and dance, preparing for you a beautiful day" (11).

A further text reads: "I come close to you, Mistress of humanity, the powerful one without equal. I bring you the wine of Nebecheh and of lake Maryut, all the jugs from the Land–of–the–Neter, for you are the Mistress of drunkenness and sovereign of music, who delights in joy. I give joy and dance each day to you, humanity rejoices at seeing you" (12).

Perhaps most revealing is the following line of text found repeatedly in the Goddess’ temple of Dendera: "Let us go to the place of drunkenness, my place of passion since antiquity" (13). The reference here to the "place of drunkenness, my place of passion" is a metaphor for the intoxicating state of mind in which one is in direct communion with Hwt–Hrw Herself. By dancing to the rhythm of the drumming and chanting this ancient incantation it is easy for the deeper levels of the mind to open to that of spiritual awareness.

In the month of Ka–Hr–Ka, later called Choiak by the Greeks, the mysteries of Isis and Osiris (Aset and Ausir) were enacted. Extending from Ka–Hr–Ka 12 through Ka–Hr–Ka 26, a two week period, this is one of the most complex and important festivals in the Egyptian religious–magical system. This is a ceremony of death, regeneration and rebirth. And once again we find that the creative power of the Goddesses of Egypt are central to this rite. While many members of the priesthood– representing a variety of different Neteru– are present, the two primary participants are priestesses representing the Goddesses Shentayet (an aspect of the widowed Goddess Aset, later named Isis by the Greeks) and Nebet Het (later named Nephthys by the Greeks.) The primary goal of these mysteries is the growing of barley as a representation of the Neter Ausir (later named Osiris by the Greeks (14). In this rite barley is seen as embodying the qualities and very nature of Ausir as that which grows and prospers only to die later for the benefit of all, only then to be reborn through the fertile power of the feminine.

The rite begins with a priestess, who is naked except for her necklace and ritual headdress. She plants the barley in a mold shaped as Ausir. At this point in the ceremony she represents Shentayet, the widowed Aset. She repeats: "I, as precious Shentayet, mistress of the Shentayet–temple, elevate the golden seed in my work, I make the golden seed effective from dusk until daybreak, planting them in the depths of the Gold temple, great of manifestation among the Neteru, I who rejuvenates my brother as the mummy inside the Gold temple" (15). In addition priests and priestesses representing Khnum, Meretseger, Hapy, Heru, Anpu/Anubis, Hwt–Hrw and Djehuty/Thoth come forward, each repeating sacred texts.

The second day the same participants assemble, however a second priestess, who will be portraying Nebet Het later, is present and she too is naked wearing only her jewels and headdress. Like the priestess on the first day, this lady represents Shentayet. She repeats the following while watering the barley that is Ausir: I, Shentayet, residing in Busiris, mistress of the golden seed, Mistress of beautiful Iunet, become pregnant with the Ba of my beloved, Ausir. I, beautiful of appearance, mistress in the Gold temple, for whom the two lands become excited when I give birth to the Neter" (16). And so the rite continues daily until the 22nd of Ka–Hr–Ka.

Each day from the 22nd through the 26th of Ka–Hr–Ka the same two priestesses representing Aset and Nebet Het perform the lengthy recitation of the lamentations. This is an extensive ritual text designed as a form of duet in which the two Goddesses speak back and forth calling to Ausir in very esoteric and symbolic terms. These begin with Aset stating: "Come to your house, come to your house! You of On, come to your house!" It continues: "Long have I not seen you! My heart mourns you, my eyes seek you, I search for you to see you!" Repeatedly the phrase "come to your house" is chanted. In Ancient Egypt the term "house" had a particularly symbolic meaning as it represented the vagina and womb. In this situation Aset is calling Her mate from beyond the grave to return that He may father their child Heru. Nebet Het picks up the chant by stating: "O good king, come to your house! Wennofer, justified, come to Djedet, O lusty bull, come to Anpet! O lover of women, come to Hat–mehyt, come Djedet, the place your ba loves!" (17) Back and forth the sing–song pattern of the chant continues as the Goddesses coax the God back to life and into a state of excitation in which he is able to take part in the conception of new life as represented in their future son Heru.

During the full moon of Hnt–htj, later named the month of Payni by the Greeks, the "Beautiful Feast of the Valley" was celebrated. This ceremony involved the sailing of the priesthood and sacred statue of Amun–Ra from Karnak to Hwt–Hrw’s temple in Deir el–Bahri located on the western side of the Nile. Once there the statues were placed together in the sanctuary, while people from the surrounding communities gathered near the tombs of their ancestors and enjoyed nocturnal feasting and revelry. Alison Roberts explains the significance of this: "In this way humans and deities together shared in a glorious feast of renewal uniting the Living and the Dead, the climax of which was the coming forth from the temple and tomb at dawn to behold the rising sun in the East alighting upon a regenerated world" (18).

Throughout the night the sanctuary of the temple was illuminated with torches and candles, while elaborate rituals were conducted. Once again Ms. Roberts sheds insight on the esoteric nature of this portion of the ceremony: "During this night of jubilation, when the sanctuary was transformed into an illuminated room of light and renewal, the intoxicating power of Hathor dissolved the barriers separating the Living and the Dead. There was a return to the chaos of pre–creation, to an experience of primordial unity as the night–time power of the Goddess erupted to renew the exhausted cosmic order. Then at dawn, as the flames were extinguished in milk, Amun–Re’s boat was taken forth again from the interior of the mountain. Emerging from the darkness of night towards Karnak in the southeast, the primordial god of Egypt manifested anew in a regenerated world" (19).

The significance of this can not be over stated, for within this one festival ritual a fundamental truth of Ancient Egyptian esoteric thought is clearly portrayed; the female essence of divinity is equated with the primordial state from which all originally emerged. Further, it is through the "intoxicating power" of the feminine that all is renewed! Clearly, Ancient Egyptian religion is not the patriarchal system that so many scholars would have us believe. Rather it is a synthesis showing the great dance that occurs between complimentary opposites as symbolized in the male and female deities.

Still another important rite can be seen in the Procession of Menu, who was later named Min by the Greeks. This was at once an agricultural festival celebrating the harvest of the grains, a fertility festival insuring continued life for the coming year, a procession/appearance of the Neter and a rite of Kingship. Extending several days this ceremony began on the day after the new moon during the lunar month of Hnsw, later called Pachons by the Greeks.

In this festival the King was carried in a portable shrine to the sanctuary of Menu. There, during elaborate rituals he presented offerings of incense and libations to the Neter. The following day a second procession set out from the temple. This was larger than the first and involved a series of priests carrying the statue of Menu on a platform draped in cloth and suspended by polls. Ahead of this the King, a white bull sacred to Menu and a priest burning incense steadily walked. While in the rear a priest carried bundles of lettuce sacred to Menu. The procession ended in the fields to be harvested. There the statue of Menu was placed on a throne under a canopy and the offerings made. The King then symbolically reaped the first grains of wheat from the field and presented these to the statue. It is likely that at this point the royal couple (or a priestess and priest representing the couple) had sexual intercourse ensuring a bountiful harvest and continued prosperity for the future. Then four sparrows were released, carrying Menu’s fertility and the King’s prosperity to the four corners of Egypt (20).

By far one of the most beautiful, important and most intensely celebrated festivals in the Egyptian mysteries is "She is Lead Back" (21) also known as "the Festival of the Beautiful Embrace" (22) and "the Festival of the Joyous Union" (23). This is the annual commemoration of the marriage of the Goddess Hwt–Hrw to Heru–Ur, or Horus–the–Elder, who was also known as Horus of Behdet (24) or Hr bhdty (25) of Edfu. Occurring as it did shortly before the Summer Solstice this festival is also an observance of the return of Hwt–Hrw as "the Eye" to Her father Ra.

The festivities began on the full moon of Hnt–htj, later called Payni by the Greeks, in Hwt–Hrw’s temple of Iunet— modern day Dendera (26). There the rite of the "fruits of the fields" was performed in which offerings of grain, vegetables and other foods from the harvest were presented to the Goddess. On Hnt–htj 24 a festival honoring Hwt–Hrw and Heru was celebrated. The following day ceremonies that recognized Hwt–Hrw as "the Akhet Eye that pleases Ra" were held. These initial ceremonies were all meant as preparations on the part of the priesthood of Iunet for the Goddess’ long procession by boat to Heru’s temple of Edfu.

The fourth day before the new moon that marks the beginning of Ipt Hmt, the lunar month which later was known as Epiphi by the Greeks, was called "the going forth of Nit along the water." On this day a procession of priestesses and priests opened the great doors of the temple of Iunet. First came the four doorkeepers, followed by the steward to the temple stores and the bearers of the altar fires. These were followed by the priests of the hours, the Wab priests, the Hem Neter— Servants of Hwt–Hrw, and the lector priests who repeated the sacred liturgy. Throughout it all the Hener troupe of ritual musicians and dancers sang praises to Hwt–Hrw as Her priestesses shook their Sistra and Menat in unison to a hypnotic and rhythmic beat. Finally, as priests burning incense emerged from the gates, the small barge carrying the sacred golden Naos which is the portable shrine for the statue of Hwt–Hrw, appeared raised high on the shoulders of priests dressed in pure white linen (27).

For many of the throngs gathered outside the temple this was one of the most important events in their lives; to catch a glimpse of the sacred shrine that held the living image of Hwt–Hrw was a rare and spiritual experience. For within the golden Naos Hwt–Hrw resided, embodied within the sacred statue. With this procession She began Her journey up the Nile river to the temple of Edfu, to mate with Her lover Heru and to be unite with Her father Ra as his eye upon his forehead. The voyage was made by sacred barge, a full scale river boat named "Great of Love" (28).

On the first day the procession stopped at the temple of Mut with its numerous statues of the Goddess Sekhmet. There the two Goddesses and their priesthood visited with one another as members from Mut’s temple joined in the river procession. From there the pilgrimage continued south, stopping the second day to visit the Goddess Anukis, a Goddess of water and sexuality whose name means "embracer" (29). With each stop additional boats filled with crowds of people would join the flotilla as it continued toward Edfu. On the third day the procession stopped in Nekhen, there one of the many different forms of Heru joined in the celebration.

The day before the new moon was known as the festival of "Shu and Djehuty bring back the Udjet–Eye." This is a clear reference to the legend of the "Distant Goddess" in which Hwt–Hrw, as the Eye of Ra, was led back to Egypt to be reunited with Her father. The placement of this festival just one day before the procession of Hwt–Hrw reaches Edfu is not coincidental. Rather, this sets the stage for the events that are to follow.

On the morning of the new moon the priesthood of Edfu, with the sacred statue of Heru–Ur sailed down the Nile to meet Hwt–Hrw and Her flotilla. Once the two groups met an oracle was performed to decide the fate of the journey. Then the couple continued on, arriving at the banks of the river outside of the temple of Edfu exactly eight hours after sunrise. There the two statues were brought to a shrine where the "Opening of the Mouth" ceremony was performed. This was followed by the harvest rituals of the "driving of the calves" and the "offering of the fruits of the fields." From there the procession retired to the temple where the sacred union between Hwt–Hrw and Heru was enacted. This probably took place in the Mammisi, the "birth house" of the temple. A text from Edfu not only exemplifies the pleasure Heru feels at this union, it also shows the extreme importance of Hwt–Hrw’s reunion as the Eye with Ra, Her father: "Heru’s heart takes pleasure when the Mistress of Iunet comes, to see Her father, to join with the God of Edfu in the temple, to be united with Khepri’s forehead . . . There She finds Her father rejoicing at seeing Her, for She is His Eye after it has come back!" (30)

During the evening the entire community surrounding the temple was in jubilee. As was seen in the text presented earlier this was a time celebration and great joy. There was dancing, drinking and sensual festivities occurring throughout the night.

The following day began with the morning ritual in which offerings were presented to the couple. From there the procession left the temple and traveled to the sacred grove near the necropolis outside of the temple. This was done so that Hwt–Hrw and Heru, as the embodiment of life and regeneration, could revitalize the "Godly–Souls" — the nine Neteru who, legend explained, had come with the creator out of the Nun, the primordial sea from which all came (31). Ritual music, dancing and offerings were made to the nine. From there the procession moved to the Per Ankh— House of Life— in the temple complex. Here a ritual enactment of the victory of Heru over Sutekh, whom the Greeks later named Set, was commemorated. This consisted of the butchering of a red ox that was later eaten, followed by the destruction of red wax images of a hippopotamus and two crocodiles by throwing them into a fire. A volley of arrows was then shot into the air to the four quarters, followed by the release of four geese who were trained to fly in these same directions (32).

The procession then returned to the temple for the evening were the sacred marriage was enacted once again. Each day throughout the waxing moon the same set of ceremonies were carefully performed. It was felt that on the evening of the fourth day Ihy, the son of Hwt–Hrw and Heru, was conceived (the birth of Ihy was celebrated nine months later on the eleventh of Renwett (Greek name: Pharmuthi) in Iunet/Dendera). Then, on the day of the full moon Hwt–Hrw bid Heru farewell and began Her journey via the flotilla to Her temple of Iunet/Dendera.

The symbolism contained in this festival is complex. First, this is without a doubt a celebration of the harvest. Held during the gathering season the repeated ritual of the offering of the fruits the field, first at Iunet and then Edfu, as well as the driving of the calves makes this clear. Here the Goddess and God in their creative aspect are presented with the outcome of the proliferation that their combined influence represents. Along with the harvest this festival is also a celebration of sensuality and sexuality as the natural act that leads to creation. As such, the sacred marriage whether in actuality through the union of Queen and King/Priestess and Priest, symbolically through the placement of the statues of Hwt–Hrw and Heru in the shrine together or both, is a central theme of this extensive ceremony.

The timing of this with the waxing moon is no coincidence. In most cultures, both ancient and modern, the waxing moon has always been seen as representing fertility and a time for new beginnings. The fact that Hwt–Hrw takes Her leave at the full moon is significant as this indicates that She has fulfilled Her time of conception and is ready, through the power of this orb, to return to Her home as She prepares for the eventual birth of Her son. Perhaps it is important to remember that the number four is the symbol of perfection. It is for this reason that the conception of Ihy was seen as occurring on the fourth day after the new moon. Interestingly His birth occurs four days before the full moon of Renwett.

Ihy is a symbol of both the divine and earthly powers associated with the monarchy. R.T. Rundle Clark explained that Ihy is the "child of light, a symbol of the first emergence in its freshness and potentiality" (33). A wonderful coffin text gives an important description: "My majesty precedes me as Ihy, the Son of Hwt–Hrw, I am the male of masculinity, I flowed out from between her thighs, in this my name of Jackal of the Light, I oozed out of her essence, I broke forth from the egg, I escaped in her blood, I am Lord of Blood. I am a turbulent bull, I came into being, I crept, I traveled around. I grew, I became tall like my father. The flood it was that raised me up . . . My mother suckled me, I tasted her sweetness, I am the babe in the primeval waters" (34). Because Ihy is the personification of joy, music, and the exuberance of life, the King frequently identified himself with Ihy during ceremonies performed to Hwt–Hrw. In the temple of Iunet/Dendera the following excerpt from a hymn describes this: "The King comes to dance, He comes to sing; Mistress (Hwt–Hrw), see the dancing, Wife of Heru, see the skipping! He offers it to you, this jug; Mistress, see the dancing, Wife of Heru, see the skipping! His heart is straight, His inmost open, no darkness is in His breast; Mistress, see the dancing, Wife of Heru see the skipping! O Golden One, how good is this song! Like the song of Heru Himself! Ra’s son sings as master singer, He is Ihy, the Heru–child, the musician!" (35)

The third theme contained within this important ceremony revolves around the relationship of Hwt–Hrw to Ra. Ancient texts repeatedly emphasize that Hwt–Hrw, as the Eye of Ra, is a representation of the protective power of the Sun. The following, taken from the inner sanctuary— Great Seat— of Hwt–Hrw’s temple of Iunet/Dendera, states that Hwt–Hrw is "the Eye of Ra in the temple of the Sistra, Mistress of the exultation . . . Hwt–Hrw is the feminine solar disc in the Sanctuary of the Beautiful, the venerable and powerful in Edfu" (36).

It is clear that the ceremony of "She is Lead Back" occurring so near the Summer Solstice is a reference to Hwt–Hrw in Her form of the Sun disk, for this is the time of year when the Sun reaches its northern most point. In fact, during this annual phenomena the Sun would be almost directly overhead at Edfu. This was a cause of great joy as it was seen as the return of Hwt–Hrw to Her father. A text from a small temple on the Isle of Philae describes Ra’s joy at Her return: "Ra exalts without ceasing, His heart rejoices when He joins His daughter, He swims in His firmament, in peace. He turns and takes His course" (37).

In each of these festivals, as well as the majority of those that we have not had space to mention, the same fundamental themes remain the same: that the Gods and Goddesses of Egypt are the underlying intelligences and forces inherent in nature, and as such these deities are accessible to human perception through dance, chanting, music and similar techniques that alter consciousness. These festivals literally were living mandalas embodying the esoteric teachings of Ancient Egypt. In this way they become evocative representations of, and vehicles for, the dynamic forces that create life, transcend death and bring about rebirth . . . each existing on levels of reality that we are only just becoming aware of. Thus, through these rites direct encounters with these divinities can occur in very potent forms enabling the participant to move beyond one’s mundane center of awareness to a spiritual perception that is seldom experienced.

Ancient Egyptian ritual was and is a vivacious, sensual, as well as deeply esoteric system of spiritual growth and understanding. It is a powerful system that few modern occultists and magicians have barely begun to fully research or comprehend.

Footnotes

1. Lesko 1999.229
2. See Cup of Wonder Issue Number Four, October 2000, pages 24 through 30.
3. Meeks 1996.197
4. Meeks 1996.196–197, West 1985. 402
5. Krupp 1983.258
6. Krupp 1991.218
7. Meeks 1996.197
8. Lesko 1999.126
9. Roberts 1997.36
10. Lao–tzu/Cleary 1991.21
11. Derived from texts reported in Bleeker’s Hathor and Thoth
12. Temple of Dendera, translation Wisner 2000
13. Temple of Dendera, translation Wisner 2000
14. Meeks 1996.168–172
15. Cauville 1997
16. Cauville 1997
17. Lichtheim 1980.117–120
18. Roberts 1997.126
19. Roberts 1997.126–127
20. Naydler 1996.85–88
21. Meeks 1996.179
22. Bleeker 1973.95
23. Watterson 1998.105
24. Watterson1998.33
25. Cauville 1998.16
26. Watterson 1998.105
27. Lamy 1981.80–81
28. Meeks 1996.178
29. Hart 1986.27, Lesko 1999.266
30. Meeks 1996.179
31. Meeks 1996.180
32. Meeks 1996.181
33. Clark 1959.88
34. Clark 1959.88, Roberts 1997.30
35. Lichtheim 1980.107–109
36. Cauville 1998.15
37. Lesko 1999. 127

Works Cited

Lichtheim, Miriam. Ancient Egyptian Literature. Vol. I (1973), Vol. II (1976), Vol. III (1980). University of California Press. Berkeley, California, U.S.A.